Mills

Mills are structures that are used to break down a range of raw materials, and include corn mills, oil mills, sawmills, stone mills, powder mills, fulling mills and paper mills. Corn mills are the oldest examples of widespread mechanical equipment. Prehistoric hand mills consisting of a grindstone and muller (such as those found at Greifensee) demonstrate that kernels of grain have been ground for making porridge and bread from as early as the Neolithic period. Human or animal-powered mills were increasingly replaced by water-powered milling after around 300 BC. Archaeologists have also found evidence of windmills dating from a few centuries later.

The history of mills in Switzerland

There is archaeological evidence of Gallo-Roman water mills in Avenches (dating from the 1st century), and in Cham (from the 2nd century). The first written accounts to mention a water mill in Geneva date to 563, with further mills in the Swiss Plateau appearing in 9th century texts. A dense network of mills, the majority of which were water-powered, had already developed by the 13th century. Today, however, there is just a single windmill left in Switzerland. This can be found in Lutry and was in use from the end of the 17th century until the second half of the 18th century.

The landowning elite, who covered the high building costs, exploited the vital role of mills in feeding the population in order to gain control over local commercial life. Town mayors also funded the construction of mills which were later given over to the town or to citizens. The land-owning lords had serfs run the mills or leased them to tenants. The practice of establishing small, non-tenancy cooperative mills began in rural areas in the 13th century. Emphyteusis meant that mills could be inherited. This gave mill owners a lasting influence to the extent that short-term leases with high interest rates and public ownership, particularly in the case of large, urban mills, started to appear in the 17th century. The crisis among the landed nobility in the 14th and 15th centuries and decline in agricultural production brought about the decrease in milling. Mills came into ownership of the local lord when lordships were purchased. Archaeological finds and financial entries indicate that many disused mills were rebuilt or redeveloped under following the economic revival of the 16th and 17th centuries – primarily under the ownership of farmers and millers. Until the 19th century, mills were customer-serving mills, per se. As public service providers, they were obliged to mill their customers’ grist for a fixed fee. They did, however, enjoy some privileges, such as having priority access to water supplies ahead of farmers.

At their pre-industrialisation peak, there were as many as 7,000 mills in Switzerland. However, only 300 historic sites of that number remain to this day. This map shows about 500 mill sites (including new builds and reconstructions). Many mill wheels and milling machines were restored after 1950, and mills were opened to the public as museums. The Vereinigung Schweizer Mühlenfreunde (the Friends of Swiss Mills Association) was founded in 2000 and supports the preservation of corn mills and other historic water-powered structures.

Types of mills

Generally speaking, mills can be split into three categories. They can be categorised by the products they process, (i.e. corn mills, saw mills or paper mills). Another way to categorise types of mills is by their design, such as rolling mills or hammer mills. Finally, a mill’s power source (i.e. human or animal power, water, wind or motor) has a significant impact on the structure’s appearance. The vast majority of mills in Switzerland today are water mills. These can also be subdivided based on the design of their water wheel. The design of which depends on the type of water supply. Water wheels can therefore be divided into overshot water wheels, (water flows from above onto the wheel), undershot water wheels (water flows through underneath the wheel) and breastshot wheels (water drives the wheel at hub height).